ONE TOWN SQUARE: at the intersection of peak oil, climate change, and land use

Autodata Corp estimates light vehicle sales a seasonally adjusted annual rate of 11.47 million units in August, down 18.9% from August 2009 (which was boosted by cash-for-clunkers), and down 0.5% from the July 2010 sales rate.

Calculated Risk posts this chart showing U.S. auto sales since the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) started keeping data in 1967.

The August 2009 “blip” was the product of “cash for clunkers.”

U.S. auto sales are still below levels last seen in 1983, when there were fewer registered drivers and a smaller population.

VMT in the U.S. peaked in 2007.  About 14.8 million cars are being scrapped every year in the U.S. With the number of cars on U.S. roads declining, it’s hard to understand how projections that traffic volume on U.S. roads will continue to increase in the future as it has in the past will prove out. Maybe it’s time we start planning for reduced traffic volumes – which might mean scuttling some of our most touted projects, such as the Columbia River Crossing.

A study published in the September issue of the Journal of the Geological Society found that increasing CO2 levels are causing foram diversity to plummet:

A unique ‘natural laboratory’ in the Mediterranean Sea is revealing the effects of rising carbon dioxide levels on life in the oceans. The results show a bleak future for marine life as ocean acidity rises, and suggest that similar lowering of ocean pH levels may have been responsible for massive extinctions in the past.

Rising carbon dioxide levels acidify the ocean, which has a particularly devastating effect on organisms that have calcium carbonate shells, like Foraminifera. The study, published in the September issue of the Journal of the Geological Society, found that increasing CO2 levels caused foram diversity to fall from 24 species to only 4. The study found a tipping point occurs at mean pH 7.8, the pH level predicted for the end of this century.

Forams record past events in the geological record. The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), 55 million years ago, was a period of massive carbon release and rapid warming, accompanied by extinctions in marine life.

This statement by study co-author Dr. Jason Hall-Spencer in the Geological Society’s press release is not optimistic:

Our natural laboratory provides a glimpse into the future of our oceans.

Joseph Romm at Climate Progress has posted this chart showing trends in ocean CO2 concentrations and pH at one sampling station off Hawaii.

Romm also points out that the disappearance of forams has grave implications for the rest of the food chain.

For an analysis of what that could mean, see 2009 Nature Geoscience study concludes ocean dead zones “devoid of fish and seafood” are poised to expand and “remain for thousands of years.”

A study published in the journal Global Change Biology reports the discovery of very similar colonies of bryozoans – animals that anchor themselves to the seabed – in both the Ross and Weddell Seas.

The bryozoans, sometimes called moss animals, are often microscopic as individuals but form colonies that can look like corals or some seaweeds. Those found were unlike others around the current coast of Antarctica.

So,what’s the big deal?

Bryozoans are largely static and their larvae, dispersed by currents, are short-lived and quickly sink. How is it possible that two virtually identical populations came to exist 2400 kilometers apart, separated by the 2 kilometre thick West Antarctic ice sheet?

An article at ABC News in Science quotes lead author David Barnes:

The most likely explanation of such similarity is that this ice sheet is much less stable than previously thought and has collapsed at some point in the recent past. And if the West Antarctic ice shelf has been lost in recent times we have to re-think the possibility of loss in future with climate change.

If the ice were gone a passage would become open through which currents could carry the larvae between the two seas.

Melting of the West Antarctica ice cap would raise world sea levels by between 3.5 and 5 meters. In a brief warm period about 125,000 years ago, world sea levels were about five meters higher than today and temperatures probably at least 4°C warmer.

Spiegel Online International reports A confidential German army study, warning of a looming oil crisis which could have dramatic political and economic consequences, has been leaked. The study – a product of the Future Analysis department of the Bundeswehr Transformation Center, a think tank tasked with fixing a direction for the German military – depicts the consequences of an irreversible depletion of raw materials.

According to Spiegel Online, the report concludes there is “some probability that peak oil will occur around the year 2010 and that the impact on security is expected to be felt 15 to 30 years later”. The study warns of:

[S]hifts in the global balance of power, of the formation of new relationships based on interdependency, of a decline in importance of the western industrial nations, of the “total collapse of the markets” and of serious political and economic crises.

The article provides the following summary of the report’s main points:

• Oil will determine power: The Bundeswehr Transformation Center writes that oil will become one decisive factor in determining the new landscape of international relations: “The relative importance of the oil producing nations in the international system is growing. These nations are using the advantages resulting from this to expand the scope of their domestic and foreign policies and establish themselves as a new or resurgent regional, or in some cases even global leading power.”
• Increasing importance of oil exporters: For importers of oil more competition for resources will mean an increase in the number of nations competing for favor with oil producing nations. For the latter this opens up a window of opportunity which can be used to implement political, economic or ideological aims. As this window of time will only be open for a limited period, “this could result in a more aggressive assertion of national interests on the part of the oil producing nations.”
• Politics in place of the market: The Bundeswehr Transformation Center expects that a supply crisis would roll back the liberalization of the energy market. “The proportion of oil traded on the global, freely accessible oil market will diminish as more oil is traded through bi-national contracts,” the study states. In the long run, the study goes on, the global oil market will only be able to follow the laws of the free market in a restricted way. “Bilateral, conditioned supply agreements and privileged partnerships, such as those seen prior to the oil crises of the seventies, will once again come to the fore.”
• Market failures: The authors paint a bleak picture of the consequences resulting from a shortage of petroleum. As the transportation of goods depends on crude oil, international trade could be subject to colossal tax hikes. “Shortages in the supply of vital goods could arise” as a result, for example in food supplies. Oil is used directly or indirectly in the production of 95% of all industrial goods. Price shocks could therefore be seen in almost any industry and throughout all stages of the industrial supply chain. “In the medium term the global economic system and every market-oriented national economy would collapse.”
• Relapse into planned economy: Since virtually all economic sectors rely heavily on oil, peak oil could lead to a “partial or complete failure of markets,” says the study. “A conceivable alternative would be government rationing and the allocation of important goods or the setting of production schedules and other short-term coercive measures to replace market-based mechanisms in times of crisis.”
• Global chain reaction: “A restructuring of oil supplies will not be equally possible in all regions before the onset of peak oil,” says the study. “It is likely that a large number of states will not be in a position to make the necessary investments in time,” or with “sufficient magnitude.” If there were economic crashes in some regions of the world, Germany could be affected. Germany would not escape the crises of other countries, because it’s so tightly integrated into the global economy.
• Crisis of political legitimacy: The Bundeswehr study also raises fears for the survival of democracy itself. Parts of the population could comprehend the upheaval triggered by peak oil “as a general systemic crisis.” This would create “room for ideological and extremist alternatives to existing forms of government.” Fragmentation of the affected population is likely and could “in extreme cases lead to open conflict.”

The study, Peak Oil: Sicherheitspolitische Implikationen knapper Ressourcen, is available here (unfortunately in German). Robert Rapier has posted a translation of the major points in the report at his R Squared Energy Blog.

Dr. Jeff Masters at WunderBlog reports that both the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route are now open. Data at the University of Illinois site Cryosphere Today shows it is now possible to completely circumnavigate the Arctic Ocean in ice-free waters – and this will probably continue to be the case for at least a month.

This year marks the third consecutive year–and the third time in recorded history–that both the Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route have melted free, according to the National Snow and Ice Data Center.

The Northeast Passage opened for the first time in recorded history in 2005, and the Northwest Passage in 2007. It now appears that the opening of one or both of these northern passages is the new norm.

Here’s an updated graphic:

As this graphic from Chris Mooney’s article in New Scientist shows, ice volume has been decreasing even more precipitously than ice area.

The average volume of Arctic ice between July and September has fallen from 21,000 cubic kilometres in 1979 to 8000 cubic kilometres in 2009, a 55% decline compared with the 1979 to 2000 average. This is even faster than the decline in ice extent, which is 40% below the long-term average.

Not only has the total volume of Arctic ice continued to decline since 2007 considerably more quickly than predicted by most climate models, the rate of loss is accelerating. The Arctic Ocean may soon be essentially ice-free during the summer months. The dark ocean waters, mostly devoid of ice, would then absorb still more sunlight, further warming the overlying atmosphere during an increasingly lengthy ice-free season, reshaping weather throughout the region and well beyond it.

A good friend recently asked me why I give so much attention to news about Arctic sea ice extent at this blog, saying he just glosses over posts on this subject.

Here’s the reason: the area of sea ice cover is an important, amplifying climate feedback. Loss of sea ice is a cause of concern because as the area of ice decreases, increased absorption of sunlight by the darker ocean causes more sea ice melting. As this graph from Makiko Sato & James Hansen’s new blog shows, Arctic sea ice extent has been declining steadily . . .

. . . as has sea ice volume. What ice remains is getting thinner.

It’s not just sea ice that is melting. Ice sheets are shrinking too, both in Greenland and in Antarctica.

And the ice loss over the last few years has been at a time of minimum solar irradiance. Solar irradiance is now once again on the upswing.

It seems likely that September Arctic sea ice may be all but gone within a few decades – or perhaps even sooner. What does less Arctic sea ice mean for Earth’s weather patterns?

NASA is predicting loss of summer sea ice will mean more severe winter storms in the northern hemisphere – a prediction which is already being borne out.

Following Arctic sea ice extent is fascinating because it shows that global warming is not something to worry about in the future. Global warming is here and now, and is already affecting us in our daily lives. What’s worrisome is that the impacts will only get more severe. By the time the impacts are bad enough to get our attention, it will be too late – the damage will already have been done. Under the best-case scenario it will take Earth a thousand years or more to recover. Under the worst-case scenario, Earth will flip into a different, stable climate regime which won’t be hospitable to human existence.

According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), neither the Northwest Passage through the Canadian Arctic nor the Northern Sea Route along the coast of Siberia are yet free of ice and open – but it’s looking like they soon will be.

A Russian gas tanker set out from Murmansk on August 14 across the Northern Sea Route, escorted by two nuclear ice breakers, and is expected to deliver its cargo of gas condensate to China by early September.

Ice in the Vilkitsky Strait is the only remaining impediment to shipping across the Northern Sea Route . . .

. . . as seen in this NSIDC graphic of sea ice extent.

While this latest graphic shows the northern route of the Northwest Passage as being open, NSIDC’s Arctic Sea Ice News reports that as of August 17 neither the northern route (Western Parry Channel) nor the southern route (Amundsen’s Passage) through the Northwest Passage were completely clear of ice.  NSIDC says that sea ice area within the northern route is currently well below the 1968 to 2000 average and almost a month ahead of the clearing that was observed in 2007. In the southern route, there is still a substantial amount of ice.

If winds push sea ice away from the entrance to M’Clure Strait, the northern route of the Northwest Passage could open again this year – if it hasn’t already.

On August 21, 2007, the Northwest Passage became open to ships without the need of an icebreaker.  The Northwest Passage opened again on August 25, 2008. In late August 2008, satellite images showed that the last ice blockage of the Northern Sea Route had melted – which would be the first time since satellite records began that both the Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route were open simultaneously.

The Northern Sea Route was open in 2005 but closed again by 2007. A Russian nuclear icebreaker escorted a small convoy including two Western commercial vessels westward through the Northern Sea Route in 2009.

The Federal Highway Administration’s Traffic Volume Trends, June 2010 reports that vehicle miles driven in 2010 were up 1.3% over June 2010. Cumulative VMT for 2010 is now up 0.1% year to date over 2009:

Travel on all roads and streets changed by +1.3% (3.4 billion vehicle miles) for June 2010 as compared with June 2009. Travel for the month is estimated to be 263.9 billion vehicle miles.

Cumulative Travel for 2010 changed by +0.1% (1.6 billion vehicle miles). The Cumulative estimate for the year is 1,469.8 billion vehicle miles of travel.

In Oregon, vehicle miles traveled (VMT) in June declined 0.4% over 2009.

VMT in the U.S. now appear to be moving sideways. Miles driven are still 1.8% below the peak, and only 0.1% above the 2009 trough.

If the trend of ever-increasing VMT is now broken or even reversing, that would call into question the wisdom and the need of spending billions of dollars on capacity-enhancing infrastructure projects. Take the Columbia River Crossing: if vehicle traffic is falling rather than increasing, why would we need it?

UPDATE 8/24: Todd Litman has posted on his blog this chart showing how U.S. VMT is now down about 10% from the long-term trend:

Litman points out the emerging reality means we need to rethink our approach to transportation:

This requires a major change in the way we think about transportation problems and evaluate solutions. Most state and regional transportation plans are based on the assumption that VMT will continue to grow as it did in the past, so the primary problem is traffic congestion. The decline in VMT growth indicates that traffic congestion problems will be less severe and other problems will become more important, including inadequate mobility options for non-drivers, transit crowding, transport affordability, and environmental concerns.

Litman concludes with what should be obvious to all: the need to expand roads and parking facilities will decline.

The August 2010 edition of Oilwatch Monthly has just been released. It leads off with a discussion of Chinese demand for oil, which has been running at 8.8 million barrels per day (mbd) for the first half of 2010. Chines consumption has been growing at a rate of 7% per year since 2003. This compares to current U.S. consumption of 19 mbd.  U.S. consumption had been stable at 20.7 mbd prior to the economic crunch.

While Chinese consumption is rising, Chinese production is expected to peak in 2010 and then begin to decline at a rate of about 3% per year. Chinese production rose to just over 4 mbd in July, hitting 4.09 mbd. But 70% of Chinese production comes from nine giant fields, five of which are declining and another three of which have peaked or are expected to peak in 2010.

China, like the U.S., must import the difference between production and consumption. Dropping production and rising consumption can only mean one thing: greater demand for oil imports. This, at a time when it’s already looking like supplies are beginning to get tight.

Global crude production has been going down since 2005.

2008 – at least for the moment – saw the peak in all liquids production.

The main reason that all liquids production has been maintained above 2005 levels is the increase in natural gas liquids. Other nonconventional sources, such as biofuels, extra heavy oil, and tar sands,  have played a rather minor role.

Aa the world struggles to maintain the volume of liquids fuels production, the struggle to maintain  the energy content of liquid fuels production is proving even more of a challenge.

In production statistics all liquid fuels are aggregated as total “oil” production. However, different liquid fuels contain different amounts of energy per barrel produced. For example, a barrel of crude oil contains around 5.8 million British Thermal Units (BTUs) while a similar barrel of natural gas liquids contains 4.2 million BTUs. Conversion to BTUs shows that actual available energy worldwide in January 2010 was 3.3% lower than liquids statistics counted in barrels would suggest.

Oil consumption  in OPEC, China and India is growing at a good clip. Consumption in the U.S. and Europe has been dropping. Were that not the case, there already would not be enough to go around.

The global competition for energy from liquid fuels is soon going to get fierce.

Amazingly, there’s one remaining, more or less intact stand of primeval forest left in Europe: the Bialowieza forest, which straddles the border between Poland and Belarus.

Not surprisingly, that remnant 580-square-mile stand is under threat. Only 17% of the forest is protected as national park.  The rest is subject to selective logging, which proponents excuse as “good for the forest”.

The Bialowieza forest hosts a number of endangered species, including the European woodland bison, which lives nowhere else in the wild. The forest also provides habitat to wolves, boar, tarpan (a species of wild horse), badgers, moose, lynx, eagles and woodpeckers.

Greenpeace Poland is working to halt logging in the Bialowieza forest until new forest management plans are drawn up which would limit logging to the minimum required for local residents and ban it during the bird nesting season. Wish them luck.

Scientists predict in a new study that fewer than one in five of the plants and animals which currently live in the world’s rainforests will still be here in 90 years time. The culprits? Climate change and deforestation.

The study, “Correlative and mechanistic models of species distribution provide congruent forecasts under climate change”, is published in the June edition of Conservation Letters, an open-access journal. Here’s the abstract:

Good forecasts of climate change impacts on extinction risks are critical for effective conservation management responses. Species distribution models (SDMs) are central to extinction risk analyses. The reliability of predictions of SDMs has been questioned because models often lack a mechanistic underpinning and rely on assumptions that are untenable under climate change. We show how integrating predictions from fundamentally different modeling strategies produces robust forecasts of climate change impacts on habitat and population parameters. We illustrate the principle by applying mechanistic (Niche Mapper) and correlative (Maxent, Bioclim) SDMs to predict current and future distributions and fertility of an Australian gliding possum. The two approaches make congruent, accurate predictions of current distribution and similar, dire predictions about the impact of a warming scenario, supporting previous correlative-only predictions for similar species. We argue that convergent lines of independent evidence provide a robust basis for predicting and managing extinctions risks under climate change.

By 2100, climate change and deforestation could have altered two-thirds of the rainforests in Central and South America and about 70% in Africa. The Amazon Basin alone could see changes in biodiversity for 80% of the region.

A U.K. Telegraph article about the study quotes Daniel Nepstad, senior scientist at the Woods Hole Research Center, which studies climate change in Massachusetts:

This study is the strongest evidence yet that the world’s natural ecosystems will undergo profound changes including severe alterations in their species composition through the combined influence of climate change and land use. Conservation of the world’s biota, as we know it, will depend upon rapid, steep declines in greenhouse gas emissions.

Battered by record heat and a drought that has destroyed millions of hectares of crops, Russia – the world’s third largest wheat exporter – has banned grain exports.

Prime Minister Vladimir Putin announced:

In connection with the unusually high temperatures and the drought, I consider it right to impose a temporary ban on the export from Russia of grain and other products produced from grain.

Putin said Russia’s policy after December 31 would be determined by the results of the harvest. Russia has slashed its 2010 grain harvest forecast to 70-75 million tonnes, compared with a harvest of 97 million tonnes in 2009.

The record heat and drought have spawned widespread wildfires. Peat bog fires outside Moscow have shrouded the capital in smog. Wheat prices have soared as Russia sizzles.

Jeff Masters at Wunder Blog reports the Russian population affected by extreme heat is at least double the population of Moscow, which is just over ten million; and the death toll in Russia from the 2010 heat wave is probably at least 15,000, and may be much higher. The only comparable heat wave in European history occurred just seven years ago in 2003, and killed an estimated 40,000 – 50,000 people, mostly in France and Italy.

Masters observes this is the worst heat wave in Russian history:

Prior to this year, the hottest temperature in Moscow’s history was 37.2°C (99°F), set in August 1920. The Moscow Observatory has now matched or exceeded this 1920 all-time record five times in the past two weeks. Temperatures the past 27 days in a row have exceeded 30°C in Moscow. Alexander Frolov, head of Russia’s weather service, said in a statement today, “Our ancestors haven’t observed or registered a heat like that within 1,000 years. This phenomenon is absolutely unique.”

Russian President Dmitry Medvedev says its time to face up to the reality of climate change:

None of us can say what the next summer will be like. The forecasts vary greatly. Everyone is talking about climate change now. Unfortunately, what is happening now in our central regions is evidence of this global climate change, because we have never in our history faced such weather conditions in the past. This means that we need to change the way we work, change the methods that we used in the past.”

Fat chance of that happening, here. No matter what the evidence, it’s business as usual, pursue growth at any cost, and let the future take care of itself.

Update: Peak Oil News has posted this great graphic showing the distribution of fires:

Scientists are saying the record heat wave in Russia and the deadly heat and flooding in Asia may become the norm rather than the exception. The Peak Oil News piece quotes Professor Michael Mann, a noted paleo-climatologist researcher:

The record heat waves we’re seeing this summer aren’t simply a random event in isolation. They are embedded in the warmest 6 month period the globe has seen in the instrumental record spanning the past 150 years. And a wealth of paleoclimate evidence suggests that the past few decades are the warmest period in at least a thousand years, and perhaps much longer.

An analysis of coal production by Tadeusz Patzek at The University of Texas at Austin and Gregory Croft at the University of California, Berkeley concludes that the global peak of coal production from existing coalfields will occur close to the year 2011. The study was published in Energy, the International Journal.

After 2011, the production rates of coal and CO₂ decline, reaching 1990 levels by the year 2037, and reaching 50% of the peak value in the year 2047. In other words, the peak of global coal production from the existing coalfields is imminent, and coal production from these areas will fall by 50% in the next 40 years.

The CO2 emission estimates used for government policy decisions assume unlimited coal and fossil fuel production for the next 100 years, an unrealistic premise that skews climate change models and proposed solutions. Co-author Tad Patzek observes:

The IPCC carbon estimates, which are used by all major decision makers, are based on economic and policy considerations that appear to be unconstrained by geophysics.

Above: cumulative annual area changes for 34 of the widest Greenland ice sheet marine-terminating outlets. Source: Byrd Polar Research Center.

Location of the successive calving fronts of the Jakobshavn Isbrae glacier between 1851 and 2009, overlain on a Landsat image from 7/29/2009. Source: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio. Historic calving front locations courtesy of Anker Weidick and Ole Bennike, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland.

Gregor Macdonald has posted this chart at The Oil Drum which neatly shows the headwinds facing the U.S. “economy”.

It’s not going to get any prettier in the future. We’re going to have to figure out what prosperity could look like in an environment where energy is going to become an ever more precious commodity.

Last year governments world-wide provided $43 – $46 billion of support to renewable energy through subsidies such as tax credits, guaranteed electricity prices known as feed-in tariffs, and alternative energy credits.

Sounds pretty good, right?

But not so fast. In 2008, governments provided $557 billion in subsidies to fossil fuels.

An analysis by Bloomberg New Energy Finance shows that the global direct subsidy for fossil fuels is at least ten times the subsidy for renewables.

Dr Hubbard shows how soot has pock-marked the ice

Microscopic life crucial to the marine food chain is dying out. The consequences could be catastrophic.

So reads the headline of an article in the U.K. Independent reporting on new research published in the journal Nature. The study, titled Global phytoplankton decline over the past century, finds there has been a 40% decline in the ocean’s phytoplankton over the last 100 years – and global warming is to blame.

The microscopic plants that support all life in the oceans are dying off at a rate of about 1% per year. The decline is related to rising sea surface temperatures.

According to the Independent, the scientists said if the findings are confirmed by further studies, the decline in phytoplankton will represent the single biggest change to the global biosphere in modern times, even bigger than the destruction of the tropical rainforests and coral reefs. Phytoplankton are microscopic marine organisms capable of photosynthesis, just like terrestrial plants. They float in the upper layers of the oceans, provide much of the oxygen we breathe and account for about half of the total organic matter on Earth. Phytoplankton are the basis of life in the oceans and are essential in maintaining the health of the oceans. A 40% decline would represent a massive change to the global biosphere.

The press release explains that in warmer oceans, the water becomes stratified, with warmer water on top of colder deeper water. Nutrients which are normally replenished by upwelling colder water are cut off, and the photosynthesizers living in the surface waters starve to death.

Rising sea surface temperatures were negatively correlated with phytoplankton growth over most of the globe, especially close to the equator. Phytoplankton need both sunlight and nutrients to grow; warm oceans are strongly stratified, which limits the amount of nutrients that are delivered from deeper waters to the surface ocean. Rising temperatures may contribute to making the tropical oceans even more stratified, leading to increasing nutrient limitation and phytoplankton declines.

Dave Cohen points out we’re caught in a nasty downward spiral:

It is clear that we have a disastrous positive feedback loop at work here, in which warmer surface water supports fewer phytoplankton, which then take up less CO₂ from the atmosphere, which causes the surface water to warm some more due to the greenhouse effect, etc.

Here’s the abstract of the Nature article:

In the oceans, ubiquitous microscopic phototrophs (phytoplankton) account for approximately half the production of organic matter on Earth. Analyses of satellite-derived phytoplankton concentration (available since 1979) have suggested decadal-scale fluctuations linked to climate forcing, but the length of this record is insufficient to resolve longer-term trends. Here we combine available ocean transparency measurements and in situ chlorophyll observations to estimate the time dependence of phytoplankton biomass at local, regional and global scales since 1899. We observe declines in eight out of ten ocean regions, and estimate a global rate of decline of ~1% of the global median per year. Our analyses further reveal interannual to decadal phytoplankton fluctuations superimposed on long-term trends. These fluctuations are strongly correlated with basin-scale climate indices, whereas long-term declining trends are related to increasing sea surface temperatures. We conclude that global phytoplankton concentration has declined over the past century; this decline will need to be considered in future studies of marine ecosystems, geochemical cycling, ocean circulation and fisheries.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has released the 2009 State of the Climate report, which concludes the scientific evidence that our world is warming is unmistakable. The past decade was the warmest on record and that the Earth has been growing warmer over the last 50 years.

Human society has developed for thousands of years under one climatic state, and now a new set of climatic conditions are taking shape. These conditions are consistently warmer, and some areas are likely to see more extreme events like severe drought, torrential rain and violent storms.

Deke Arndt, co-editor of the report and chief of the Climate Monitoring Branch of NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center, is quoted in NOAA’s press release:

The temperature increase of one degree Fahrenheit over the past 50 years may seem small, but it has already altered our planet. Glaciers and sea ice are melting, heavy rainfall is intensifying and heat waves are more common. And, as the new report tells us, there is now evidence that over 90 percent of warming over the past 50 years has gone into our ocean.

Regarding warming oceans, the report says warming has been observed as far as 6,000 feet below the surface, but most of the heat is accumulating in the oceans’ near-surface layers. The implications of a warming ocean are considerable. First, because water expands as it warms, ocean heating is responsible for much of the observed sea-level rise (melting of land-based ice is responsible for the rest). Further, the oceans will hold the heat they’ve accumulated because they warm and cool much more slowly than air – meaning the impacts of warming will continue to be felt long after greenhouse gas emissions peak and begin to decline, should humans ever manage to muster the wisdom and the will to make that happen.